Introduction to statistical pattern recognition (2nd ed.)
Introduction to statistical pattern recognition (2nd ed.)
The how and why of electronic noses
IEEE Spectrum
Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition
Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition
Pattern Classification (2nd Edition)
Pattern Classification (2nd Edition)
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We present a method to diagnose lung cancer by the analysis of breath using an electronic nose. This device can react to a gas substance by providing signals that can be analyzed to classify the input. It is composed of a sensor array (6 MOS sensors, in our case) and a pattern classification process based on machine learning techniques. During the first phase of our research, we have evaluated the possibility and accuracy of lung cancer diagnosis by classifying the olfactory signal associated to exhalations of subjects. The second part of the research, still in progress, is aimed at assessing the possibility of discriminating also the different types and stages of the disease. At the end of the first phase, results have been very satisfactory and promising: we achieved an average accuracy of 92.6%, sensitivity of 95.3% and specificity of 90.5%. In particular we analyzed the breath of 101 individuals, of which 58 control subjects, and 43 suffer from different types of lung cancer (primary and not) at different stages. In order to find the components able to discriminate between the two classes 'healthy' and 'sick' at best, and to reduce the dimensionality of the problem, we have extracted the most significant features and projected them into a lower dimensional space using Non Parametric Linear Discriminant Analysis. Finally, we have used these features as input to several supervised pattern classification algorithms, based on different k-nearest neighbors (k-NN) approaches (classic, modified and Fuzzy k-NN), linear and quadratic discriminant classifiers and on a feed-forward artificial neural network (ANN). The observed results have all been validated using cross-validation. These results pushed us to begin the second phase of the project to investigate the possibility of early lung cancer diagnosis: we are involving a larger number of subjects, partioned in different classes according to the type and stage of the disease. The research demonstrates that the electronic nose is a promising alternative to current lung cancer diagnostic techniques: the obtained predictive errors are lower than those achieved by present diagnostic methods, and the cost of the analysis, both in money, time and resources, is lower. The introduction of this technology will lead to very important social and business effects: its low price and small dimensions allow a large scale distribution, giving the opportunity to perform non invasive, cheap, quick, and massive early diagnosis and screening.