The Design and Use of Steerable Filters
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
Feature Detection with Automatic Scale Selection
International Journal of Computer Vision
Shape Matching and Object Recognition Using Shape Contexts
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
Affine/ Photometric Invariants for Planar Intensity Patterns
ECCV '96 Proceedings of the 4th European Conference on Computer Vision-Volume I - Volume I
Object Recognition from Local Scale-Invariant Features
ICCV '99 Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer Vision-Volume 2 - Volume 2
Introduction to MPEG-7: Multimedia Content Description Interface
Introduction to MPEG-7: Multimedia Content Description Interface
Video Google: A Text Retrieval Approach to Object Matching in Videos
ICCV '03 Proceedings of the Ninth IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision - Volume 2
Scale & Affine Invariant Interest Point Detectors
International Journal of Computer Vision
Distinctive Image Features from Scale-Invariant Keypoints
International Journal of Computer Vision
A Performance Evaluation of Local Descriptors
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
The Pyramid Match Kernel: Discriminative Classification with Sets of Image Features
ICCV '05 Proceedings of the Tenth IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision - Volume 2
Scalable Recognition with a Vocabulary Tree
CVPR '06 Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition - Volume 2
Beyond Bags of Features: Spatial Pyramid Matching for Recognizing Natural Scene Categories
CVPR '06 Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition - Volume 2
PCA-SIFT: a more distinctive representation for local image descriptors
CVPR'04 Proceedings of the 2004 IEEE computer society conference on Computer vision and pattern recognition
SURF: speeded up robust features
ECCV'06 Proceedings of the 9th European conference on Computer Vision - Volume Part I
Proceedings of the 1st ACM international workshop on Multimedia indexing and information retrieval for healthcare
A GPU implementation of a structural-similarity-based aerial-image classification
The Journal of Supercomputing
A hierarchical scheme of multiple feature fusion for high-resolution satellite scene categorization
ICVS'13 Proceedings of the 9th international conference on Computer Vision Systems
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We investigate bag-of-visual-words (BOVW) approaches to land-use classification in high-resolution overhead imagery. We consider a standard non-spatial representation in which the frequencies but not the locations of quantized image features are used to discriminate between classes analogous to how words are used for text document classification without regard to their order of occurrence. We also consider two spatial extensions, the established spatial pyramid match kernel which considers the absolute spatial arrangement of the image features, as well as a novel method which we term the spatial co-occurrence kernel that considers the relative arrangement. These extensions are motivated by the importance of spatial structure in geographic data. The methods are evaluated using a large ground truth image dataset of 21 land-use classes. In addition to comparisons with standard approaches, we perform extensive evaluation of different configurations such as the size of the visual dictionaries used to derive the BOVW representations and the scale at which the spatial relationships are considered. We show that even though BOVW approaches do not necessarily perform better than the best standard approaches overall, they represent a robust alternative that is more effective for certain land-use classes. We also show that extending the BOVW approach with our proposed spatial co-occurrence kernel consistently improves performance.