Embodied conversational interface agents
Communications of the ACM
Eye gaze patterns in conversations: there is more to conversational agents than meets the eyes
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Where to look: a study of human-robot engagement
Proceedings of the 9th international conference on Intelligent user interfaces
Integrating vision and audition within a cognitive architecture to track conversations
Proceedings of the 3rd ACM/IEEE international conference on Human robot interaction
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Conversational gaze mechanisms for humanlike robots
ACM Transactions on Interactive Intelligent Systems (TiiS)
Adaptive eye gaze patterns in interactions with human and artificial agents
ACM Transactions on Interactive Intelligent Systems (TiiS)
Visual attention and eye gaze during multiparty conversations with distractions
IVA'06 Proceedings of the 6th international conference on Intelligent Virtual Agents
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Studies in HRI have shown that people follow and understand robot gaze. However, only a few studies to date have examined the time-course of a meaningful robot gaze, and none have directly investigated what type of gaze is best for eliciting the perception of attention. This paper investigates two types of gaze behaviors---short, frequent glances and long, less frequent stares---to find which behavior is better at conveying a robot's visual attention. We describe the development of a programmable research platform from MyKeepon toys, and the use of these programmable robots to examine the effects of gaze type and group size on the perception of attention. In our experiment, participants viewed a group of MyKeepon robots executing random motions, occasionally fixating on various points in the room or directly on the participant. We varied type of gaze fixations within participants and group size between participants. Results show that people are more accurate at recognizing shorter, more frequent fixations than longer, less frequent ones, and that their performance improves as group size decreases. From these results, we conclude that multiple short gazes are preferable for indicating attention over one long gaze, and that the visual search for robot attention is susceptible to group size effects.