Multi-timescale nexting in a reinforcement learning robot
Adaptive Behavior - Animals, Animats, Software Agents, Robots, Adaptive Systems
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We present a new family of gradient temporal-difference (TD) learning methods with function approximation whose complexity, both in terms of memory and per-time-step computation, scales linearly with the number of learning parameters. TD methods are powerful prediction techniques, and with function approximation form a core part of modern reinforcement learning (RL). However, the most popular TD methods, such as TD(λ), Q-learning and Sarsa, may become unstable and diverge when combined with function approximation. In particular, convergence cannot be guaranteed for these methods when they are used with off-policy training. Off-policy training—training on data from one policy in order to learn the value of another—is useful in dealing with the exploration-exploitation tradeoff. As function approximation is needed for large-scale applications, this stability problem is a key impediment to extending TD methods to real-world large-scale problems. The new family of TD algorithms, also called gradient-TD methods, are based on stochastic gradient-descent in a Bellman error objective function. We provide convergence proofs for general settings, including off-policy learning with unrestricted features, and nonlinear function approximation. Gradient-TD algorithms are on-line, incremental, and extend conventional TD methods to off-policy learning while retaining a convergence guarantee and only doubling computational requirements. Our empirical results suggest that many members of the gradient-TD algorithms may be slower than conventional TD on the subset of training cases in which conventional TD methods are sound. Our latest gradient-TD algorithms are “hybrid” in that they become equivalent to conventional TD—in terms of asymptotic rate of convergence—in on-policy problems.