A bounded storage algorithm for copying cyclic structures
Communications of the ACM
An efficient, incremental, automatic garbage collector
Communications of the ACM
An efficient machine-independent procedure for garbage collection in various list structures
Communications of the ACM
Implementation of an array bound checker
POPL '77 Proceedings of the 4th ACM SIGACT-SIGPLAN symposium on Principles of programming languages
On the design and verification of operating systems.
On the design and verification of operating systems.
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Pointer manipulation is one of the trickiest operations in programming and is a major source of programming errors. A great deal of research effort has been dedicated to making programs with pointers more reliable. In this paper we will present pointer operations which reduce conceptual difficulties when writing pointer programs, and increase reliability of programs. We will analyze theoretically as well as empirically why these operations are more convenient. Finally, we will define the safety of rotations, and show that it is decidable to check whether the rotation is safe and also show that it is a good measure of the correctness of programs. (That is, if the rotation is safe it is highly probable that the program is correct, and if it is unsafe it is highly probable that the program is incorrect.)Probably the most successful effort to eliminate difficulties associated with pointer manipulation is the invention of abstract data types and the use of implementation modules. Pointers are often used to implement complex data structures, which in turn represent abstract data types. We can textually localize relevant pointer manipulations using abstract data types. Thus, we can easily check correctness of pointer programs. This approach is successful when the structure of abstract data types is simple, or efficiency is not seriously required. However, programs like garbage collection, list marking and copying, and balanced tree manipulations have not been well specified by abstract types.The approach taken in this paper is complementary to abstract data types, and makes programs like list marking and copying more reliable and easy to write. The idea behind this approach is to introduce higher-level pointer manipulation primitives instead of pointer assignments. Since most pointer assignments do not appear isolated, we can group several assignments together and replace them by one of these new primitives. We also show some theoretical evidence why these operations are nicer.Two primitives are introduced in this paper. One is the n-way pointer rotation, which is defined as being equivalent to the following procedure:Rotate: procedure(var x1, x2, … , xn:T) = begin var w:T; w:=x1; x1:=x2; … ;xn:=w endwhere all the locations of arguments x1, x2, … , xn are distinct. The other operation is n-way pointer slide, which is as powerful as pointer assignment yet keeps the elegance of rotation.Section 2 of this paper reviews previous work related to this subject. We give definitions of pointer operations analyzed in this paper in section 3. Using these operations, Deutsch-Schorr-Waite algorithm is rewritten in section 4. In section 5 we analyze pointer rotations extensively and obtain several properties which are not attainable by ordinary pointer assignments. In section 6 we define the safety of pointer rotation when applied to linear list and trees. Then, we extend this definition to arbitrary pointer data structures and show a decision procedure to check safety. In section 7 we show two examples, list marking and list copying programs written using rotations and slides. We examine how we can directly code the algorithms using these operations and safety checking algorithms are useful.