Learning internal representations by error propagation
Parallel distributed processing: explorations in the microstructure of cognition, vol. 1
The elements of nonlinear optics
The elements of nonlinear optics
Practical developments in optical neural networks that use self-lensing materials
Practical developments in optical neural networks that use self-lensing materials
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The experimental demonstration of optical backpropagation in a feed-forward optical neural network, developed by the authors, is presented. To our knowledge, this is the first report of backpropagation training in an optical system. The network uses a thermal nonlinear material as a neural processing layer and a photorefractive crystal as a phase conjugate mirror to backpropagate the optical error. The nonlinear material modulates the phase front of a forward propagating information beam by dynamically altering the index of the refraction profile of the material via a stronger weighting beam.