A framework for task cooperation within systems containing intelligent components
IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics
Plans and situated actions: the problem of human-machine communication
Plans and situated actions: the problem of human-machine communication
The technology of team navigation
Intellectual teamwork
Design rules based on analyses of human error
Communications of the ACM
Ownership and Evolution of Local Process Representations
INTERACT '09 Proceedings of the 12th IFIP TC 13 International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction: Part I
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In this article, we examine learning within a cooperative system. We focus on the role of learning from errors in a context where regular attrition of group members occurs. Specifically, the study involved observation of distributed activity in the team navigation of a large naval vessel. Analyses revealed frequent individual errors; however, successful detection and correction of errors also occurred. Thus, the cooperative system simultaneously allowed high component error and ensured low system output error. This robustness is an especially valuable feature for distributed systems because it provides for needed on-the-job learning while maintaining a high level of overall performance. Errors were observed to function as opportunities for instruction based on a novice's demonstrated "need to know." The distributed system was found to contain certain design tradeoffs that are exploited for their utility in learning (viz., distributing knowledge across the team and providing multiple perspectives for error detection). The results are applicable to the design of computer-supported cooperative tasks and provide guidelines for task organization that facilitates performance while incorporating the ability to learn from errors.