Interpreting symptoms of cognitive load in speech input
UM '99 Proceedings of the seventh international conference on User modeling
Recognizing Time Pressure and Cognitive Load on the Basis of Speech: An Experimental Study
UM '01 Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on User Modeling 2001
Modeling drivers' speech under stress
Speech Communication - Special issue on speech and emotion
Automatic detection and correction of repairs in human-computer dialog
HLT '91 Proceedings of the workshop on Speech and Natural Language
ICASSP '99 Proceedings of the Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, 1999. on 1999 IEEE International Conference - Volume 04
Potential speech features for cognitive load measurement
OZCHI '07 Proceedings of the 19th Australasian conference on Computer-Human Interaction: Entertaining User Interfaces
Automatic cognitive load detection from speech features
OZCHI '07 Proceedings of the 19th Australasian conference on Computer-Human Interaction: Entertaining User Interfaces
On the use of complementary spectral features for speaker recognition
EURASIP Journal on Advances in Signal Processing
Phase based features for cognitive load measurement system
ICASSP '09 Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing
Stress Detection Using Speech Spectrograms and Sigma-pi Neuron Units
ICNC '09 Proceedings of the 2009 Fifth International Conference on Natural Computation - Volume 02
A non-uniform subband approach to speech-based cognitive load classification
ICICS'09 Proceedings of the 7th international conference on Information, communications and signal processing
A Study of Voice Source and Vocal Tract Filter Based Features in Cognitive Load Classification
ICPR '10 Proceedings of the 2010 20th International Conference on Pattern Recognition
Robust speech recognition in noisy environments based on subband spectral centroid histograms
IEEE Transactions on Audio, Speech, and Language Processing
Multimodal behavior and interaction as indicators of cognitive load
ACM Transactions on Interactive Intelligent Systems (TiiS) - Special issue on highlights of the decade in interactive intelligent systems
Neural and speech indicators of cognitive load for sudoku game interfaces
ICONIP'12 Proceedings of the 19th international conference on Neural Information Processing - Volume Part I
Automatic and continuous user task analysis via eye activity
Proceedings of the 2013 international conference on Intelligent user interfaces
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Speech is a promising modality for the convenient measurement of cognitive load, and recent years have seen the development of several cognitive load classification systems. Many of these systems have utilised mel frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCC) and prosodic features like pitch and intensity to discriminate between different cognitive load levels. However, the accuracies obtained by these systems are still not high enough to allow for their use outside of laboratory environments. One reason for this might be the imperfect acoustic description of speech provided by MFCCs. Since these features do not characterise the distribution of the spectral energy within subbands, in this paper, we investigate the use of spectral centroid frequency (SCF) and spectral centroid amplitude (SCA) features, applying them to the problem of automatic cognitive load classification. The effect of varying the number of filters and the frequency scale used is also evaluated, in terms of the effectiveness of the resultant spectral centroid features in discriminating between cognitive loads. The results of classification experiments show that the spectral centroid features consistently and significantly outperform a baseline system employing MFCC, pitch, and intensity features. Experimental results reported in this paper indicate that the fusion of an SCF based system with an SCA based system results in a relative reduction in error rate of 39% and 29% for two different cognitive load databases.