External cognition: how do graphical representations work?
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
Multimedia learning in social sciences: limitations of external graphical representations
Computers in Human Behavior
The role of spatial descriptions in learning from multimedia
Computers in Human Behavior
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The reported study investigated the influence of longer text presentation on the modality and the redundancy effect. In particular, the auditory-recency-effect explanation, which predicts that both effects should disappear when longer texts are presented, was tested against the text-processing explanation, which predicts that both effects should even reverse if text-processing strategies can be applied. In Experiment 1, a 2x2 between-subject design with animation presentation (yes vs. no) and text modality (written vs. spoken) was used (N=81). In line with the auditory-recency-effect explanation text modality did not influence learning outcomes. Moreover, animations facilitated transfer performance due to reduced cognitive effort. In Experiment 2, a 2x3 between-subject design with pacing (system-paced vs. learner-paced) and text modality (written vs. spoken vs. written and spoken) was used (N=122). Again, text modality did not influence learning outcomes regardless of whether the learning environment was learner- or system-paced, supporting the auditory-recency-effect explanation. The analysis of log-files, however, indicated that learners within the learner-paced condition with written text replayed the single text segments more often; moreover, replaying segments was positively correlated with learning outcomes. Thus, processing written text more intensively was associated with better learning outcomes, which supports the text-processing explanation.