External cognition: how do graphical representations work?
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
The functions of multiple representations
Computers & Education
Using video and static pictures to improve learning of procedural contents
Computers in Human Behavior
The role of spatial descriptions in learning from multimedia
Computers in Human Behavior
Computers in Human Behavior
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The multimedia effect (ME) is a well-researched effect in the field of learning and instruction. In this article, two views that explain the ME are compared. The outcome-oriented view focuses on the beneficial effect of text and pictures on mental representations, whereas the process-oriented view focuses on the beneficial effect of text and pictures for information processing. To contrast these views, the ME sizes for different task types were compared (i.e., conceptual, causal, procedural tasks). Whereas the outcome-oriented view predicts no differences in ME size, the process-oriented view predicts that the ME is largest in causal tasks, smaller in procedural tasks, and smallest in conceptual tasks. Sixty-five students learnt with text only or with text and pictures. Task type and information source (i.e., whether the text, picture, or text and picture provided the answer to a post-test question) were varied within subjects. The results showed that, in line with the process-oriented view, the ME was smaller for conceptual tasks than for procedural tasks. Contrary to the expectations, the ME was larger in procedural tasks than in causal tasks. Moreover, the pattern of results varied with information source. Research and practical implications are described, so that pictures can be deployed optimally.