Scan registration for autonomous mining vehicles using 3D-NDT: Research Articles
Journal of Field Robotics - Special Issue on Mining Robotics
Robust 3D-mapping with time-of-flight cameras
IROS'09 Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE/RSJ international conference on Intelligent robots and systems
Time-of-Flight sensor calibration for accurate range sensing
Computer Vision and Image Understanding
Robotics and Autonomous Systems
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3D range sensing is an important topic in robotics, as it is a component in vital autonomous subsystems such as for collision avoidance, mapping and perception. The development of affordable, high frame rate and precise 3D range sensors is thus of considerable interest. Recent advances in sensing technology have produced several novel sensors that attempt to meet these requirements. This work is concerned with the development of a holistic method for accuracy evaluation of the measurements produced by such devices. A method for comparison of range sensor output to a set of reference distance measurements, without using a precise ground truth environment model, is proposed. This article presents an extensive evaluation of three novel depth sensors - the Swiss Ranger SR-4000, Fotonic B70 and Microsoft Kinect. Tests are concentrated on the automated logistics scenario of container unloading. Six different setups of box-, cylinder-, and sack-shaped goods inside a mock-up container are used to collect range measurements. Comparisons are performed against hand-crafted ground truth data, as well as against a reference actuated Laser Range Finder (aLRF) system. Additional test cases in an uncontrolled indoor environment are performed in order to evaluate the sensors' performance in a challenging, realistic application scenario.