The program-size complexity of self-assembled squares (extended abstract)
STOC '00 Proceedings of the thirty-second annual ACM symposium on Theory of computing
Running time and program size for self-assembled squares
STOC '01 Proceedings of the thirty-third annual ACM symposium on Theory of computing
Computer Aided Manufacture in Architecture: Changing the Craft of Design
Computer Aided Manufacture in Architecture: Changing the Craft of Design
Algorithmic Self-assembly Of DNA Tiles And Its Application To Cryptanalysis
GECCO '02 Proceedings of the Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference
Evolutionary fabrication: the emergence of novel assembly methods in artificial ontogenies
GECCO '05 Proceedings of the 7th annual workshop on Genetic and evolutionary computation
DNA Computing: New Computing Paradigms (Texts in Theoretical Computer Science. An EATCS Series)
DNA Computing: New Computing Paradigms (Texts in Theoretical Computer Science. An EATCS Series)
Staged self-assembly: nanomanufacture of arbitrary shapes with O(1) glues
Natural Computing: an international journal
Randomized Self-assembly for Approximate Shapes
ICALP '08 Proceedings of the 35th international colloquium on Automata, Languages and Programming, Part I
Randomized Self-Assembly for Exact Shapes
FOCS '09 Proceedings of the 2009 50th Annual IEEE Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science
Evolving physical self-assembling systems in two-dimensions
ICES'10 Proceedings of the 9th international conference on Evolvable systems: from biology to hardware
Exact shapes and turing universality at temperature 1 with a single negative glue
DNA'11 Proceedings of the 17th international conference on DNA computing and molecular programming
Temperature 1 self-assembly: deterministic assembly in 3D and probabilistic assembly in 2D
Proceedings of the twenty-second annual ACM-SIAM symposium on Discrete Algorithms
Programming and evolving physical self-assembling systems in three dimensions
Natural Computing: an international journal
Designing self-assembling systems via physically encoded information
Designing self-assembling systems via physically encoded information
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One of the practical challenges facing the creation of self-assembling systems is being able to exploit a limited set of fixed components and their bonding mechanisms. The method of staging divides the self-assembly process into time intervals, during which components can be added to, or removed from, an environment at each interval. Staging addresses the challenge of using components that lack plasticity by encoding the construction of a target structure in the staging algorithm itself and not exclusively in the design of the components. Previous staging strategies do not consider the interplay between component physical features morphological information. In this work we use morphological information to stage the self-assembly process, during which components can only be added to their environment at each time interval, to demonstrate our concept. Four experiments are presented, which use heterogeneous, passive, mechanical components that are fabricated using 3D printing. Two orbital shaking environments are used to provide energy to the components and to investigate the role of morphological information with component movement in either two or three spatial dimensions. The benefit of our staging strategy is shown by reducing assembly errors and exploiting bonding mechanisms with rotational properties. As well, a doglike target structure is used to demonstrate in theory how component information used at an earlier time interval can be reused at a later time interval, inspired by the use of a body plan in biological development. We propose that a staged body plan is one method toward scaling self-assembling systems with many interacting components. The experiments and body plan example demonstrate, as proof of concept, that staging enables the self-assembly of more complex morphologies not otherwise possible.