Scientific American
Service systems, service scientists, SSME, and innovation
Communications of the ACM - Services science
The World Is Flat [Updated and Expanded]: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century
The World Is Flat [Updated and Expanded]: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century
Individual-centered education: An any one, any time, any whereapproach to engineering education
IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Part C: Applications and Reviews
Toward a decision informatics paradigm: a real-time, information-based approach to decision making
IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Part C: Applications and Reviews
The Future of Systems, Man, and Cybernetics: Application Domains and Research Methods
IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Part C: Applications and Reviews
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Engineering has and will continue to have a critical impact on healthcare; the application of technology-based techniques to biological problems can be defined to be technobiology applications. This paper is primarily focused on applying the technobiology approach of systems engineering to the development of a healthcare service system that is both integrated and adaptive. In general, healthcare services are carried out with knowledge-intensive agents or components which work together as providers and consumers to create or co-produce value. Indeed, the engineering design of a healthcare system must recognize the fact that it is actually a complex integration of human-centered activities that is increasingly dependent on information technology and knowledge. Like any service system, healthcare can be considered to be a combination or recombination of three essential components - people (characterized by behaviors, values, knowledge, etc.), processes (characterized by collaboration, customization, etc.) and products (characterized by software, hardware, infrastructures, etc.). Thus, a healthcare system is an integrated and adaptive set of people, processes and products. It is, in essence, a system of systems which objectives are to enhance its efficiency (leading to greater interdependency) and effectiveness (leading to improved health). Integration occurs over the physical, temporal, organizational and functional dimensions, while adaptation occurs over the monitoring, feedback, cybernetic and learning dimensions. In sum, such service systems as healthcare are indeed complex, especially due to the uncertainties associated with the human-centered aspects of these systems. Moreover, the system complexities can only be dealt with methods that enhance system integration and adaptation.