Flocks, herds and schools: A distributed behavioral model
SIGGRAPH '87 Proceedings of the 14th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques
Evolving collective behavior in an artificial ecology
Artificial Life
The Effect of Evolution in Artificial Life Learning Behavior
Journal of Intelligent and Robotic Systems
Collective or scattering: evolving schooling behaviors to escape from predator
ICAL 2003 Proceedings of the eighth international conference on Artificial life
How to Solve It: Modern Heuristics
How to Solve It: Modern Heuristics
Emergence of Collective Behavior in Evolving Populations of Flying Agents
Genetic Programming and Evolvable Machines
Fear and the behaviour of virtual flocking animals
ECAL'07 Proceedings of the 9th European conference on Advances in artificial life
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In this paper the FLOCK system is presented, which was designed to test the ability of simple genetic algorithm to evolve flocking behaviour in ecosystems consisting of plants, herbivores and predators. Open-ended evolution was applied in the experiments, first. Many different behaviours were observed, which were very similar to those in nature, for instance: the escape of herbivore from predators, making herbivores route towards plants or a pursuit of predators after herbivores. Another interesting behaviour was grouping of predators around plants, where the probability of meeting herbivores is greater than in other places. But open-ended evolution and complex vision system of animal were not sufficient to observe flocking behaviour. The advanced behaviour such as creation of flocks appeared as a result of steered evolution.