An algorithm for finding nearest neighbours in (approximately) constant average time
Pattern Recognition Letters
Hardware Algorithms for Determining Similarity Between two Strings
IEEE Transactions on Computers
The R*-tree: an efficient and robust access method for points and rectangles
SIGMOD '90 Proceedings of the 1990 ACM SIGMOD international conference on Management of data
Beyond uniformity and independence: analysis of R-trees using the concept of fractal dimension
PODS '94 Proceedings of the thirteenth ACM SIGACT-SIGMOD-SIGART symposium on Principles of database systems
Fast subsequence matching in time-series databases
SIGMOD '94 Proceedings of the 1994 ACM SIGMOD international conference on Management of data
SIGMOD '95 Proceedings of the 1995 ACM SIGMOD international conference on Management of data
Latent semantic indexing: a probabilistic analysis
PODS '98 Proceedings of the seventeenth ACM SIGACT-SIGMOD-SIGART symposium on Principles of database systems
Computational Methods for Intelligent Information Access
Supercomputing '95 Proceedings of the 1995 ACM/IEEE conference on Supercomputing
Understanding search engines: mathematical modeling and text retrieval
Understanding search engines: mathematical modeling and text retrieval
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
Closest pair queries in spatial databases
SIGMOD '00 Proceedings of the 2000 ACM SIGMOD international conference on Management of data
Proceedings of the sixth ACM SIGKDD international conference on Knowledge discovery and data mining
Classification with Nonmetric Distances: Image Retrieval and Class Representation
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
A Modified Version of the K-Means Algorithm with a Distance Based on Cluster Symmetry
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR)
ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR)
Searching Multimedia Databases by Content
Searching Multimedia Databases by Content
Modern Information Retrieval
Perceptual Metrics for Image Database Navigation
Perceptual Metrics for Image Database Navigation
Empirical evaluation of dissimilarity measures for color and texture
Computer Vision and Image Understanding - Special issue on empirical evaluation of computer vision algorithms
Introduction to Algorithms
Searching in metric spaces with user-defined and approximate distances
ACM Transactions on Database Systems (TODS)
Comparing Images Using the Hausdorff Distance
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
Computation of Normalized Edit Distance and Applications
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
Fast Nearest-Neighbor Search in Dissimilarity Spaces
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
DynDex: a dynamic and non-metric space indexer
Proceedings of the tenth ACM international conference on Multimedia
A Pseudo-Metric for Weighted Point Sets
ECCV '02 Proceedings of the 7th European Conference on Computer Vision-Part III
Efficient Retrieval of Similar Time Sequences Under Time Warping
ICDE '98 Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Conference on Data Engineering
On the Surprising Behavior of Distance Metrics in High Dimensional Spaces
ICDT '01 Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Database Theory
M-tree: An Efficient Access Method for Similarity Search in Metric Spaces
VLDB '97 Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on Very Large Data Bases
VLDB '98 Proceedings of the 24rd International Conference on Very Large Data Bases
Near Neighbor Search in Large Metric Spaces
VLDB '95 Proceedings of the 21th International Conference on Very Large Data Bases
Robust Face Detection Using the Hausdorff Distance
AVBPA '01 Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Audio- and Video-Based Biometric Person Authentication
A Probabilistic Spell for the Curse of Dimensionality
ALENEX '01 Revised Papers from the Third International Workshop on Algorithm Engineering and Experimentation
SSD '95 Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Advances in Spatial Databases
An Index-Based Approach for Similarity Search Supporting Time Warping in Large Sequence Databases
Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Data Engineering
Sparse Representations for Image Decomposition with Occlusions
CVPR '96 Proceedings of the 1996 Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR '96)
A Fast Algorithm for Finding k-Nearest Neighbors with Non-Metric Dissimilarity
IWFHR '02 Proceedings of the Eighth International Workshop on Frontiers in Handwriting Recognition (IWFHR'02)
Cluster-preserving Embedding of Proteins
Cluster-preserving Embedding of Proteins
D-Index: Distance Searching Index for Metric Data Sets
Multimedia Tools and Applications
Pivot selection techniques for proximity searching in metric spaces
Pattern Recognition Letters
A Metric for Distributions with Applications to Image Databases
ICCV '98 Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Computer Vision
Indexing multi-dimensional time-series with support for multiple distance measures
Proceedings of the ninth ACM SIGKDD international conference on Knowledge discovery and data mining
Similarity Search in Seismological Signals
ENC '04 Proceedings of the Fifth Mexican International Conference in Computer Science
WARP: Accurate Retrieval of Shapes Using Phase of Fourier Descriptors and Time Warping Distance
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
A PCA-based similarity measure for multivariate time series
Proceedings of the 2nd ACM international workshop on Multimedia databases
Exact indexing of dynamic time warping
Knowledge and Information Systems
Elastic Translation Invariant Matching of Trajectories
Machine Learning
Multimedia Systems and Content-Based Image Retrieval
Multimedia Systems and Content-Based Image Retrieval
Robust and fast similarity search for moving object trajectories
Proceedings of the 2005 ACM SIGMOD international conference on Management of data
Proceedings of the 2005 ACM SIGMOD international conference on Management of data
Substructure similarity search in graph databases
Proceedings of the 2005 ACM SIGMOD international conference on Management of data
iDistance: An adaptive B+-tree based indexing method for nearest neighbor search
ACM Transactions on Database Systems (TODS)
Foundations of Multidimensional and Metric Data Structures (The Morgan Kaufmann Series in Computer Graphics and Geometric Modeling)
Texture-Based Image Retrieval for Computerized Tomography Databases
CBMS '05 Proceedings of the 18th IEEE Symposium on Computer-Based Medical Systems
On Binary Similarity Measures for Handwritten Character Recognition
ICDAR '05 Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition
Similarity Search: The Metric Space Approach (Advances in Database Systems)
Similarity Search: The Metric Space Approach (Advances in Database Systems)
Closure-Tree: An Index Structure for Graph Queries
ICDE '06 Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference on Data Engineering
Time-dependent semantic similarity measure of queries using historical click-through data
Proceedings of the 15th international conference on World Wide Web
Evaluating Dataflow and Pipelined Vector Processing Architectures for FPGA Co-processors
DSD '06 Proceedings of the 9th EUROMICRO Conference on Digital System Design
Dynamic similarity search in multi-metric spaces
MIR '06 Proceedings of the 8th ACM international workshop on Multimedia information retrieval
Evaluation campaigns and TRECVid
MIR '06 Proceedings of the 8th ACM international workshop on Multimedia information retrieval
Detecting Phishing Web Pages with Visual Similarity Assessment Based on Earth Mover's Distance (EMD)
IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing
An efficient and accurate method for evaluating time series similarity
Proceedings of the 2007 ACM SIGMOD international conference on Management of data
Learning for efficient retrieval of structured data with noisy queries
Proceedings of the 24th international conference on Machine learning
Efficient similarity search by summarization in large video database
ADC '07 Proceedings of the eighteenth conference on Australasian database - Volume 63
General Hierarchical Model (GHM) to measure similarity of time series
ACM SIGMOD Record
Effective retrieval of polyphonic audio with polyphonic symbolic queries
Proceedings of the international workshop on Workshop on multimedia information retrieval
Unified framework for fast exact and approximate search in dissimilarity spaces
ACM Transactions on Database Systems (TODS)
Reverse kNN search in arbitrary dimensionality
VLDB '04 Proceedings of the Thirtieth international conference on Very large data bases - Volume 30
Fragment-based approximate retrieval in highly heterogeneous XML collections
Data & Knowledge Engineering
Disorder inequality: a combinatorial approach to nearest neighbor search
WSDM '08 Proceedings of the 2008 International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining
Clustering for metric and non-metric distance measures
Proceedings of the nineteenth annual ACM-SIAM symposium on Discrete algorithms
Image retrieval: Ideas, influences, and trends of the new age
ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR)
Dynamic skyline queries in metric spaces
EDBT '08 Proceedings of the 11th international conference on Extending database technology: Advances in database technology
Adaptive Similarity Measurement Using Relevance Feedback
CITWORKSHOPS '08 Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE 8th International Conference on Computer and Information Technology Workshops
Deformation Modeling for Robust 3D Face Matching
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
Parallel Computation of Similarity Measures Using an FPGA-Based Processor Array
AINA '08 Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference on Advanced Information Networking and Applications
A Hybrid Approach for XML Similarity
SOFSEM '07 Proceedings of the 33rd conference on Current Trends in Theory and Practice of Computer Science
NM-Tree: Flexible Approximate Similarity Search in Metric and Non-metric Spaces
DEXA '08 Proceedings of the 19th international conference on Database and Expert Systems Applications
Navigation and Discovery in 3D CAD Repositories
IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications
Efficient Correlation Search from Graph Databases
IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering
On Index-Free Similarity Search in Metric Spaces
DEXA '09 Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Database and Expert Systems Applications
Combinatorial Framework for Similarity Search
SISAP '09 Proceedings of the 2009 Second International Workshop on Similarity Search and Applications
Principles of Information Filtering in Metric Spaces
SISAP '09 Proceedings of the 2009 Second International Workshop on Similarity Search and Applications
Using Tuneable Fuzzy Similarity in Non-metric Search
SISAP '09 Proceedings of the 2009 Second International Workshop on Similarity Search and Applications
On Fuzzy vs. Metric Similarity Search in Complex Databases
FQAS '09 Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Flexible Query Answering Systems
Evaluation of shape similarity measurement methods for spine X-ray images
Journal of Visual Communication and Image Representation
BoostMap: a method for efficient approximate similarity rankings
CVPR'04 Proceedings of the 2004 IEEE computer society conference on Computer vision and pattern recognition
Voice identification using nearest-neighbor distance measure
ICASSP'93 Proceedings of the 1993 IEEE international conference on Acoustics, speech, and signal processing: speech processing - Volume II
On fast non-metric similarity search by metric access methods
EDBT'06 Proceedings of the 10th international conference on Advances in Database Technology
Fractional distance measures for content-based image retrieval
ECIR'05 Proceedings of the 27th European conference on Advances in Information Retrieval Research
Non-metric similarity ranking for image retrieval
DEXA'06 Proceedings of the 17th international conference on Database and Expert Systems Applications
Speech audio retrieval using voice query
ICADL'06 Proceedings of the 9th international conference on Asian Digital Libraries: achievements, Challenges and Opportunities
Where are you heading, metric access methods?: a provocative survey
Proceedings of the Third International Conference on SImilarity Search and APplications
Indexing inexact proximity search with distance regression in pivot space
Proceedings of the Third International Conference on SImilarity Search and APplications
SIGSPATIAL Special
Shape comparison through mutual distances of real functions
Proceedings of the ACM workshop on 3D object retrieval
Graph-based combinations of fragment descriptors for improved 3D Object Retrieval
Proceedings of the 3rd Multimedia Systems Conference
Future trends in similarity searching
SISAP'12 Proceedings of the 5th international conference on Similarity Search and Applications
Algorithmic exploration of axiom spaces for efficient similarity search at large scale
SISAP'12 Proceedings of the 5th international conference on Similarity Search and Applications
RESYGEN: A Recommendation System Generator using domain-based heuristics
Expert Systems with Applications: An International Journal
Efficient indexing of similarity models with inequality symbolic regression
Proceedings of the 15th annual conference on Genetic and evolutionary computation
Towards efficient indexing of arbitrary similarity: vision paper
ACM SIGMOD Record
Universal indexing of arbitrary similarity models
Proceedings of the VLDB Endowment
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The task of similarity search is widely used in various areas of computing, including multimedia databases, data mining, bioinformatics, social networks, etc. In fact, retrieval of semantically unstructured data entities requires a form of aggregated qualification that selects entities relevant to a query. A popular type of such a mechanism is similarity querying. For a long time, the database-oriented applications of similarity search employed the definition of similarity restricted to metric distances. Due to its topological properties, metric similarity can be effectively used to index a database which can then be queried efficiently by so-called metric access methods. However, together with the increasing complexity of data entities across various domains, in recent years there appeared many similarities that were not metrics—we call them nonmetric similarity functions. In this article we survey domains employing nonmetric functions for effective similarity search, and methods for efficient nonmetric similarity search. First, we show that the ongoing research in many of these domains requires complex representations of data entities. Simultaneously, such complex representations allow us to model also complex and computationally expensive similarity functions (often represented by various matching algorithms). However, the more complex similarity function one develops, the more likely it will be a nonmetric. Second, we review state-of-the-art techniques for efficient (fast) nonmetric similarity search, concerning both exact and approximate search. Finally, we discuss some open problems and possible future research trends.