A survey of optimization techniques targeting low power VLSI circuits
DAC '95 Proceedings of the 32nd annual ACM/IEEE Design Automation Conference
Computer arithmetic: algorithms and hardware designs
Computer arithmetic: algorithms and hardware designs
A method for obtaining digital signatures and public-key cryptosystems
Communications of the ACM
Vibration-to-electric energy conversion
IEEE Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems - Special issue on low power electronics and design
Handbook of Applied Cryptography
Handbook of Applied Cryptography
Wireless sensor networks for habitat monitoring
WSNA '02 Proceedings of the 1st ACM international workshop on Wireless sensor networks and applications
SPINS: security protocols for sensor networks
Wireless Networks
Elliptic Curve Cryptography on a Palm OS Device
ACISP '01 Proceedings of the 6th Australasian Conference on Information Security and Privacy
NTRU: A Ring-Based Public Key Cryptosystem
ANTS-III Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Algorithmic Number Theory
CHES '01 Proceedings of the Third International Workshop on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems
DIGITALIZED SIGNATURES AND PUBLIC-KEY FUNCTIONS AS INTRACTABLE AS FACTORIZATION
DIGITALIZED SIGNATURES AND PUBLIC-KEY FUNCTIONS AS INTRACTABLE AS FACTORIZATION
State of the Art in Ultra-Low Power Public Key Cryptography for Wireless Sensor Networks
PERCOMW '05 Proceedings of the Third IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications Workshops
An efficient scheme for authenticating public keys in sensor networks
Proceedings of the 6th ACM international symposium on Mobile ad hoc networking and computing
A novel collusion-resilient architecture for secure group communication in wireless ad-hoc networks
Journal of High Speed Networks - Special issue on trusted internet workshop (TIW) 2004
Design, Analysis and Performance Evaluation of Group Key Establishment in Wireless Sensor Networks
Electronic Notes in Theoretical Computer Science (ENTCS)
Wireless sensor networks: A survey on the state of the art and the 802.15.4 and ZigBee standards
Computer Communications
Unleashing public-key cryptography in wireless sensor networks
Journal of Computer Security - On IWAP'05
Cryptography on a Speck of Dust
Computer
Containing denial-of-service attacks in broadcast authentication in sensor networks
Proceedings of the 8th ACM international symposium on Mobile ad hoc networking and computing
A novel localised authentication scheme in IEEE 802.11 based Wireless Mesh Networks
International Journal of Security and Networks
Multilayer key establishment for large-scale sensor networks
International Journal of Security and Networks
Profiling of symmetric-encryption algorithms for a novel biomedical-implant architecture
Proceedings of the 5th conference on Computing frontiers
Public key cryptography empowered smart dust is affordable
International Journal of Sensor Networks
Implementing public-key infrastructure for sensor networks
ACM Transactions on Sensor Networks (TOSN)
A Key Distribution Scheme Based on Public Key Cryptography for Sensor Networks
Computational Intelligence and Security
Sliding Window Method for NTRU
ACNS '07 Proceedings of the 5th international conference on Applied Cryptography and Network Security
Efficient security primitives derived from a secure aggregation algorithm
Proceedings of the 15th ACM conference on Computer and communications security
An authentication scheme for filtering injected bogus data in sensor networks
Computer Communications
Identification of Multiple Invalid Signatures in Pairing-Based Batched Signatures
Irvine Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Practice and Theory in Public Key Cryptography: PKC '09
Key-Insulated Encryption Based Key Pre-distribution Scheme for WSN
ISA '09 Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference and Workshops on Advances in Information Security and Assurance
A scalable distributed security infrastructure for industrial control and sensor networks
Proceedings of the 2009 International Conference on Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing: Connecting the World Wirelessly
Efficient message authentication protocol for WSN
WSEAS Transactions on Computers
IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security
A multivariate key-establishment scheme for wireless sensor networks
IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications
Short Hash-Based Signatures for Wireless Sensor Networks
CANS '09 Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Cryptology and Network Security
EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking
Review: Wireless sensor network key management survey and taxonomy
Journal of Network and Computer Applications
A security architecture for wireless sensor networks based-on public key cryptography
WiCOM'09 Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Wireless communications, networking and mobile computing
A group-based security policy for wireless sensor networks
Proceedings of the 2010 ACM Symposium on Applied Computing
A method of pair-wise key distribution and management in distributed wireless sensor networks
MSN'07 Proceedings of the 3rd international conference on Mobile ad-hoc and sensor networks
An efficient key establishment scheme for self-organizing sensor networks
ICDCN'08 Proceedings of the 9th international conference on Distributed computing and networking
Generic constructions of stateful public key encryption and their applications
ACNS'08 Proceedings of the 6th international conference on Applied cryptography and network security
On the connectivity of key-distribution strategies in wireless sensor networks
GLOBECOM'09 Proceedings of the 28th IEEE conference on Global telecommunications
Mobile Networks and Applications
From time domain to space domain: detecting replica attacks in mobile ad hoc networks
INFOCOM'10 Proceedings of the 29th conference on Information communications
A survey on secure multipath routing protocols in WSNs
Computer Networks: The International Journal of Computer and Telecommunications Networking
Lightweight cryptography and RFID: tackling the hidden overheads
ICISC'09 Proceedings of the 12th international conference on Information security and cryptology
A novel node level security policy framework for wireless sensor networks
Journal of Network and Computer Applications
EDDK: energy-efficient distributed deterministic key management for wireless sensor networks
EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking - Special issue on security and resilience for smart devices and applications
Authenticated queries in sensor networks
ESAS'05 Proceedings of the Second European conference on Security and Privacy in Ad-Hoc and Sensor Networks
One-Time sensors: a novel concept to mitigate node-capture attacks
ESAS'05 Proceedings of the Second European conference on Security and Privacy in Ad-Hoc and Sensor Networks
Collision attack on XTR and a countermeasure with a fixed pattern
EUC'05 Proceedings of the 2005 international conference on Embedded and Ubiquitous Computing
Behavior-Based trust in wireless sensor network
APWeb'06 Proceedings of the 2006 international conference on Advanced Web and Network Technologies, and Applications
Reliable broadcast message authentication in wireless sensor networks
EUC'06 Proceedings of the 2006 international conference on Emerging Directions in Embedded and Ubiquitous Computing
Practical RSA signature scheme based on periodical rekeying for wireless sensor networks
ACM Transactions on Sensor Networks (TOSN)
Low-Cost elliptic curve cryptography for wireless sensor networks
ESAS'06 Proceedings of the Third European conference on Security and Privacy in Ad-Hoc and Sensor Networks
Implementing minimized multivariate PKC on low-resource embedded systems
SPC'06 Proceedings of the Third international conference on Security in Pervasive Computing
VoCS'08 Proceedings of the 2008 international conference on Visions of Computer Science: BCS International Academic Conference
A non-associative lattice-based public key cryptosystem
Security and Communication Networks
The PASSERINE public key encryption and authentication mechanism
NordSec'10 Proceedings of the 15th Nordic conference on Information Security Technology for Applications
Capillary machine-to-machine communications: the road ahead
ADHOC-NOW'12 Proceedings of the 11th international conference on Ad-hoc, Mobile, and Wireless Networks
Leakage-resilience of stateless/stateful public-key encryption from hash proofs
ACISP'12 Proceedings of the 17th Australasian conference on Information Security and Privacy
A key-distribution mechanism for wireless sensor networks using Zig-Zag product
International Journal of Ad Hoc and Ubiquitous Computing
Key establishment scheme for sensor networks with low communication cost
ATC'07 Proceedings of the 4th international conference on Autonomic and Trusted Computing
Intrusion prevention with two-level user authentication in heterogeneous wireless sensor networks
International Journal of Security and Networks
Privacy Provisioning in Wireless Sensor Networks
Wireless Personal Communications: An International Journal
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The common perception of public key cryptography is that it is complex, slow and power hungry, and as such not at all suitable for use in ultra-low power environments like wireless sensor networks. It is therefore common practice to emulate the asymmetry of traditional public key based cryptographic services through a set of protocols [1] using symmetric key based message authentication codes (MACs). Although the low computational complexity of MACs is advantageous, the protocol layer requires time synchronization between devices on the network and a significant amount of overhead for communication and temporary storage. The requirement for a general purpose CPU to implement these protocols as well as their complexity makes them prone to vulnerabilities and practically eliminates all the advantages of using symmetric key techniques in the first place. In this paper we challenge the basic assumptions about public key cryptography in sensor networks which are based on a traditional software based approach. We propose a custom hardware assisted approach for which we claim that it makes public key cryptography feasible in such environments, provided we use the right selection of algorithms and associated parameters, careful optimization, and low-power design techniques. In order to validate our claim we present proof of concept implementations of two different algorithms—Rabin’s Scheme and NtruEncrypt—and analyze their architecture and performance according to various established metrics like power consumption, area, delay, throughput, level of security and energy per bit. Our implementation of NtruEncrypt in ASIC standard cell logic uses no more than 3,000 gates with an average power consumption of less than 20 μW. We envision that our public key core would be embedded into a light-weight sensor node architecture.