International Journal of Computer Vision
Coding, Analysis, Interpretation, and Recognition of Facial Expressions
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
Neural Network-Based Face Detection
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
Example-Based Learning for View-Based Human Face Detection
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
Improved Boosting Algorithms Using Confidence-rated Predictions
Machine Learning - The Eleventh Annual Conference on computational Learning Theory
Recognizing Action Units for Facial Expression Analysis
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
The Earth Mover's Distance as a Metric for Image Retrieval
International Journal of Computer Vision
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
Detecting Faces in Images: A Survey
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
Edge Detection with Embedded Confidence
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
Machine Learning
An Expert System for Recognition of Facial Actions and their Intensity
Proceedings of the Seventeenth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Twelfth Conference on Innovative Applications of Artificial Intelligence
Role of Featural and Configural Information in Familiar and Unfamiliar Face Recognition
BMCV '02 Proceedings of the Second International Workshop on Biologically Motivated Computer Vision
FG '98 Proceedings of the 3rd. International Conference on Face & Gesture Recognition
Coding Facial Expressions with Gabor Wavelets
FG '98 Proceedings of the 3rd. International Conference on Face & Gesture Recognition
Comprehensive Database for Facial Expression Analysis
FG '00 Proceedings of the Fourth IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition 2000
Recognizing Lower Face Action Units for Facial Expression Analysis
FG '00 Proceedings of the Fourth IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition 2000
FGR '02 Proceedings of the Fifth IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition
Facial expression recognition from video sequences: temporal and static modeling
Computer Vision and Image Understanding - Special issue on Face recognition
Robust Real-Time Face Detection
International Journal of Computer Vision
Active Appearance Models Revisited
International Journal of Computer Vision
Appearance Factorization based Facial Expression Recognition and Synthesis
ICPR '04 Proceedings of the Pattern Recognition, 17th International Conference on (ICPR'04) Volume 4 - Volume 04
Manifold Based Analysis of Facial Expression
CVPRW '04 Proceedings of the 2004 Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshop (CVPRW'04) Volume 5 - Volume 05
Active and Dynamic Information Fusion for Facial Expression Understanding from Image Sequences
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
Recognizing Facial Expression: Machine Learning and Application to Spontaneous Behavior
CVPR '05 Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR'05) - Volume 2 - Volume 02
Fully Automatic Facial Action Recognition in Spontaneous Behavior
FGR '06 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition
Fully Automatic Facial Action Unit Detection and Temporal Analysis
CVPRW '06 Proceedings of the 2006 Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshop
Foundations of human computing: facial expression and emotion
Proceedings of the 8th international conference on Multimodal interfaces
Generalization in Holistic versus Analytic Processing of Faces
ICIAP '07 Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Image Analysis and Processing
HCI'07 Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE international conference on Human-computer interaction
An analysis of Bayesian classifiers
AAAI'92 Proceedings of the tenth national conference on Artificial intelligence
Probabilistic expression analysis on manifolds
CVPR'04 Proceedings of the 2004 IEEE computer society conference on Computer vision and pattern recognition
Discrete choice models for static facial expression recognition
ACIVS'06 Proceedings of the 8th international conference on Advanced Concepts For Intelligent Vision Systems
IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Part B: Cybernetics
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A recent internet based survey of over 35,000 samples has shown that when different human observers are asked to assign labels to static human facial expressions, different individuals categorize differently the same image. This fact results in a lack of an unique ground-truth, an assumption held by the large majority of existing models for classification. This is especially true for highly ambiguous expressions, especially in the lack of a dynamic context. In this paper we propose to address this shortcoming by the use of discrete choice models (DCM) to describe the choice a human observer is faced to when assigning labels to static facial expressions. Different models of increasing complexity are specified to capture the causal effect between features of an image and its associated expression, using several combinations of different measurements. The sets of measurements we used are largely inspired by FACS but also introduce some new ideas, specific to a static framework. These models are calibrated using maximum likelihood techniques and they are compared with each other using a likelihood ratio test, in order to test for significance in the improvement resulting from adding supplemental features. Through a cross-validation procedure we assess the validity of our approach against overfitting and we provide a comparison with an alternative model based on Neural Networks for benchmark purposes.