An evaluation of earcons for use in auditory human-computer interfaces
CHI '93 Proceedings of the INTERACT '93 and CHI '93 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Ten myths of multimodal interaction
Communications of the ACM
Non-visual information display using tactons
CHI '04 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Password Memorability and Security: Empirical Results
IEEE Security and Privacy
A First Investigation into the Effectiveness of Tactons
WHC '05 Proceedings of the First Joint Eurohaptics Conference and Symposium on Haptic Interfaces for Virtual Environment and Teleoperator Systems
Designing audio and tactile crossmodal icons for mobile devices
Proceedings of the 9th international conference on Multimodal interfaces
The body surface as a communication system: The state of the art after 50 years
Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments
Proceedings of the 2nd international conference on Tangible and embedded interaction
Undercover: authentication usable in front of prying eyes
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Did you feel something? Distracter tasks and the recognition of vibrotactile cues
Interacting with Computers
HCI Beyond the GUI: Design for Haptic, Speech, Olfactory, and Other Nontraditional Interfaces
HCI Beyond the GUI: Design for Haptic, Speech, Olfactory, and Other Nontraditional Interfaces
Designing Large Sets of Haptic Icons with Rhythm
EuroHaptics '08 Proceedings of the 6th international conference on Haptics: Perception, Devices and Scenarios
In Search for an Integrated Design Basis for Audio and Haptics
HAID '08 Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Haptic and Audio Interaction Design
The SonicFinder: an interface that uses auditory icons
Human-Computer Interaction
Vibrapass: secure authentication based on shared lies
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
The New BMW iDrive --- Applied Processes and Methods to Assure High Usability
ICDHM '09 Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Digital Human Modeling: Held as Part of HCI International 2009
Towards identifying distinguishable tactons for use with mobile devices
Proceedings of the 11th international ACM SIGACCESS conference on Computers and accessibility
Feasibility study of tactile-based authentication
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
The secure haptic keypad: a tactile password system
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
ColorPIN: securing PIN entry through indirect input
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
The haptic wheel: design & evaluation of a tactile password system
CHI '10 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Influence of user perception, security needs, and social factors on device pairing method choices
Proceedings of the Sixth Symposium on Usable Privacy and Security
TeslaTouch: electrovibration for touch surfaces
UIST '10 Proceedings of the 23nd annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology
The phone lock: audio and haptic shoulder-surfing resistant PIN entry methods for mobile devices
Proceedings of the fifth international conference on Tangible, embedded, and embodied interaction
A diary study of password usage in daily life
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Using and managing multiple passwords: A week to a view
Interacting with Computers
Spinlock: a single-cue haptic and audio PIN input technique for authentication
HAID'11 Proceedings of the 6th international conference on Haptic and audio interaction design
Using mobile device screens for authentication
Proceedings of the 23rd Australian Computer-Human Interaction Conference
Mobile password system for enhancing usability-guaranteed security in mobile phone banking
HSI'05 Proceedings of the 3rd international conference on Human Society@Internet: web and Communication Technologies and Internet-Related Social Issues
The role of haptics in immersive telecommunication environments
IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology
A haptic ATM interface to assist visually impaired users
Proceedings of the 15th International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility
Under the table: tap authentication for smartphones
BCS-HCI '13 Proceedings of the 27th International BCS Human Computer Interaction Conference
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Haptic and audio cues now appear commonly in computer interfaces, partially due to inherent advantages such as their support for eyes-free interaction. Their invisible, unobservable nature also makes them ideal candidates for security interfaces in which users have to enter secret information such as passwords. In particular, researchers have explored this idea through the design of PIN entry authentication systems based on multi-modal combinations of visual and non-visual content or on the recognition of small sets of unimodal haptic or audio stimuli. This paper highlights the benefits and performance limitations of these approaches and introduces an alternative based on unimodal audio or haptic temporal numerosity - the ability to accurately and rapidly determine the number of cues presented in rapid temporal succession. In essence, in a numerosity interface, rather than recognizing distinct cues, users must count the number of times that a single cue occurs. In an iterative process of design and evaluation, three prototypes implementing this concept are presented and studies of their use reported. The results show the fastest PIN entry times and lowest error rates to be 8s and 2%, figures that improve substantially on previous research. These results are attained while maintaining low levels of workload and substantial resistance to observation attack (as determined via camera attack security studies). In sum, this paper argues that unimodal audio and haptic numerosity is a valuable and relatively unexplored metaphor for non-visual input and demonstrates the validity of this claim in the demanding task of unobservable authentication systems.