The role of emotion in believable agents
Communications of the ACM
The media equation: how people treat computers, television, and new media like real people and places
The persona effect: affective impact of animated pedagogical agents
Proceedings of the ACM SIGCHI Conference on Human factors in computing systems
The impact of animated interface agents: a review of empirical research
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
Prisoner's Dilemma
Creating Interactive Virtual Humans: Some Assembly Required
IEEE Intelligent Systems
Expression of Emotions Using Wrinkles, Blushing, Sweating and Tears
IVA '09 Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Intelligent Virtual Agents
Expression of Moral Emotions in Cooperating Agents
IVA '09 Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Intelligent Virtual Agents
Affective interaction: How emotional agents affect users
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
The effect of expression of anger and happiness in computer agents on negotiations with humans
The 10th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems - Volume 3
A computer model of the interpersonal effect of emotion displayed in a social dilemma
ACII'11 Proceedings of the 4th international conference on Affective computing and intelligent interaction - Volume Part I
Gaze tutor: A gaze-reactive intelligent tutoring system
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
Let's keep in touch online: a Facebook aware virtual human interface
The Visual Computer: International Journal of Computer Graphics
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Acknowledging the social functions that emotions serve, there has been growing interest in the interpersonal effect of emotion in human decision making. Following the paradigm of experimental games from social psychology and experimental economics, we explore the interpersonal effect of emotions expressed by embodied agents on human decision making. The paper describes an experiment where participants play the iterated prisoner's dilemma against two different agents that play the same strategy (tit-for-tat), but communicate different goal orientations (cooperative vs. individualistic) through their patterns of facial displays. The results show that participants are sensitive to differences in the facial displays and cooperate significantly more with the cooperative agent. The data indicate that emotions in agents can influence human decision making and that the nature of the emotion, as opposed to mere presence, is crucial for these effects. We discuss the implications of the results for designing human-computer interfaces and understanding human-human interaction.