CHI '94 Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
The media equation: how people treat computers, television, and new media like real people and places
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The impact of animated interface agents: a review of empirical research
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
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HCI '98 Proceedings of HCI on People and Computers XIII
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International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
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CSCL '05 Proceedings of th 2005 conference on Computer support for collaborative learning: learning 2005: the next 10 years!
Empathic agents to reduce user frustration: The effects of varying agent characteristics
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International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
Psychological responses to simulated displays of mismatched emotional expressions
Interacting with Computers
Feel the Difference: A Guide with Attitude!
IVA '07 Proceedings of the 7th international conference on Intelligent Virtual Agents
Expression of Emotions Using Wrinkles, Blushing, Sweating and Tears
IVA '09 Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Intelligent Virtual Agents
Expression of Moral Emotions in Cooperating Agents
IVA '09 Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Intelligent Virtual Agents
Affective interaction: How emotional agents affect users
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
A computer model of the interpersonal effect of emotion displayed in a social dilemma
ACII'11 Proceedings of the 4th international conference on Affective computing and intelligent interaction - Volume Part I
Computer Animation and Virtual Worlds
Bayesian model of the social effects of emotion in decision-making in multiagent systems
Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems - Volume 1
Trust and cooperation in text-based computer-mediated communication
Proceedings of the 25th Australian Computer-Human Interaction Conference: Augmentation, Application, Innovation, Collaboration
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Acknowledging the social functions of emotion in people, there has been growing interest in the interpersonal effect of emotion on cooperation in social dilemmas. This paper explores whether and how facial displays of emotion in embodied agents impact cooperation with human users. The paper describes an experiment where participants play the iterated prisoner's dilemma against two different agents that play the same strategy (tit-for-tat), but communicate different goal orientations (cooperative vs. individualistic) through their patterns of facial displays. The results show that participants are sensitive to differences in the displays of emotion and cooperate significantly more with the cooperative agent. The results also reveal that cooperation rates are only significantly different when people play first with the individualistic agent. This is in line with the well-known black-hat/white-hat effect from the negotiation literature. However, this study emphasizes that people can discern a cooperator (white-hat) from a noncooperator (black-hat) based only on emotion displays. We propose that people are able to identify the cooperator by inferring, from the emotion displays, the agent's goals. We refer to this as reverse appraisal, as it reverses the usual process in which appraising relevant events with respect to one's goals leads to specific emotion displays. We discuss implications for designing human-computer interfaces and understanding human-human interaction.