External cognition: how do graphical representations work?
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
Planning and the user interface: the effects of lockout time and error recovery cost
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
A comparison of spatial organization strategies in graphical and tangible user interfaces
DARE '00 Proceedings of DARE 2000 on Designing augmented reality environments
CHI '99 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Embodied cognition: a field guide
Artificial Intelligence
Topobo: a constructive assembly system with kinetic memory
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
A taxonomy for and analysis of tangible interfaces
Personal and Ubiquitous Computing
The TAC paradigm: specifying tangible user interfaces
Personal and Ubiquitous Computing
Do tangible interfaces enhance learning?
Proceedings of the 1st international conference on Tangible and embedded interaction
Smart Blocks: a tangible mathematical manipulative
Proceedings of the 1st international conference on Tangible and embedded interaction
Teaching table: a tangible mentor for pre-k math education
Proceedings of the 1st international conference on Tangible and embedded interaction
The CTI framework: informing the design of tangible systems for children
Proceedings of the 1st international conference on Tangible and embedded interaction
Playing with the sound maker: do embodied metaphors help children learn?
IDC '08 Proceedings of the 7th international conference on Interaction design and children
Sad is heavy and happy is light: population stereotypes of tangible object attributes
Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Tangible and Embedded Interaction
Physical manipulation: evaluating the potential for tangible designs
Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Tangible and Embedded Interaction
The effect of representation location on interaction in a tangible learning environment
Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Tangible and Embedded Interaction
Evaluating musical software using conceptual metaphors
Proceedings of the 23rd British HCI Group Annual Conference on People and Computers: Celebrating People and Technology
From action to discourse: The bridging function of gestures
Cognitive Systems Research
Designing learning representations around physical manipulation: hands and objects
Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Interaction Design and Children
Beelight: helping children discover colors
Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Interaction Design and Children
In-game assessment and training of nonverbal cognitive skills using TagTiles
Personal and Ubiquitous Computing
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Manipulatives--physical learning materials such as cubes or tiles--are prevalent in educational settings across cultures and have generated substantial research into how actions with physical objects may support children's learning. The ability to integrate digital technology into physical objects--so-called `digital manipulatives'--has generated excitement over the potential to create new educational materials. However, without a clear understanding of how actions with physical materials lead to learning, it is difficult to evaluate or inform designs in this area. This paper is intended to contribute to the development of effective tangible technologies for children's learning by summarising key debates about the representational advantages of manipulatives under two key headings: offloading cognition--where manipulatives may help children by freeing up valuable cognitive resources during problem solving, and conceptual metaphors--where perceptual information or actions with objects have a structural correspondence with more symbolic concepts. The review also indicates possible limitations of physical objects--most importantly that their symbolic significance is only granted by the context in which they are used. These arguments are then discussed in light of tangible designs drawing upon the authors' current research into tangibles and young children's understanding of number.