The neuter computer: computers for girls and boys
The neuter computer: computers for girls and boys
The Women's Computer Literacy Handbook
The Women's Computer Literacy Handbook
Men supporting women computer science students
SIGCSE '92 Proceedings of the twenty-third SIGCSE technical symposium on Computer science education
Raising the self confidence and self esteem of final year female students prior to job interviews
SIGCSE '92 Proceedings of the twenty-third SIGCSE technical symposium on Computer science education
I'm a stranger here myself: a consideration of women in computing
SIGUCCS '92 Proceedings of the 20th annual ACM SIGUCCS conference on User services
Using the new ACM code of ethics in decision making
Communications of the ACM
Exploring the status of the turnover and salary of information technology professionals in Singapore
SIGCPR '93 Proceedings of the 1993 conference on Computer personnel research
Gender imbalances in computer science at the University of the Witwatersrand
ACM SIGCSE Bulletin
SIGCSE '93 Proceedings of the twenty-fourth SIGCSE technical symposium on Computer science education
Women and computers: what we can learn from science
ACM SIGCSE Bulletin
Concepts in the classroom, programming in the lab
SIGCSE '94 Proceedings of the twenty-fifth SIGCSE symposium on Computer science education
A psychological perspective on gender differences in computing participation
SIGCSE '94 Proceedings of the twenty-fifth SIGCSE symposium on Computer science education
Teaching computer science concepts and problem solving with a spreadsheet
SIGCSE '95 Proceedings of the twenty-sixth SIGCSE technical symposium on Computer science education
Pioneering women in computer science
Communications of the ACM
Human nature and the glass ceiling in industry
Communications of the ACM
Information technology and the gender factor
SIGCPR '95 Proceedings of the 1995 ACM SIGCPR conference on Supporting teams, groups, and learning inside and outside the IS function reinventing IS
Examination of gender effects on intention to stay among information systems employees
SIGCPR '95 Proceedings of the 1995 ACM SIGCPR conference on Supporting teams, groups, and learning inside and outside the IS function reinventing IS
On the retention of female computer science students
SIGCSE '96 Proceedings of the twenty-seventh SIGCSE technical symposium on Computer science education
An unlevel playing field: women in the introductory computer science courses
SIGCSE '96 Proceedings of the twenty-seventh SIGCSE technical symposium on Computer science education
Viewing video-taped role models improves female attitudes toward computer science
SIGCSE '96 Proceedings of the twenty-seventh SIGCSE technical symposium on Computer science education
Activities to attract high school girls to computer science
SIGCSE '96 Proceedings of the twenty-seventh SIGCSE technical symposium on Computer science education
Factors effecting high school student's choice of computer science as a major
Proceedings of the symposium on Computers and the quality of life
SIGCSE '98 Proceedings of the twenty-ninth SIGCSE technical symposium on Computer science education
A structured review of reasons for the underrepresentation of women in computing
Proceedings of the 2nd Australasian conference on Computer science education
Gender discrimination in the workplace: a literature review
Communications of the ACM
The professional development challenge for IT professionals
Communications of the ACM - Supporting community and building social capital
People who make a difference: mentors and role models
ACM SIGCSE Bulletin - Women and Computing
Women in computing: what brings them to it, what keeps them in it?
ACM SIGCSE Bulletin - Women and Computing
Pioneering women in computer science
ACM SIGCSE Bulletin - Women and Computing
Integrating cultural issues into the computer and information technology curriculum
Working group reports from ITiCSE on Innovation and technology in computer science education
Is the information systems profession gendered?: characterization of IS professionals and IS careers
SIGMIS CPR '03 Proceedings of the 2003 SIGMIS conference on Computer personnel research: Freedom in Philadelphia--leveraging differences and diversity in the IT workforce
The systems developer skill set: exploring nature, gaps, and gender differences research in progress
SIGMIS CPR '03 Proceedings of the 2003 SIGMIS conference on Computer personnel research: Freedom in Philadelphia--leveraging differences and diversity in the IT workforce
The power to change is in our hands
Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges
The effect of closed labs in computer science I: an assessment
Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges
Women in information technology
Strategies for managing IS/IT personnel
Exploring antecedents of gender equitable outcomes in IT higher education
Proceedings of the 2004 SIGMIS conference on Computer personnel research: Careers, culture, and ethics in a networked environment
Computer-mediated knowledge sharing and individual user differences: an exploratory study
European Journal of Information Systems
Gender and black boxes in the programming curriculum
Journal on Educational Resources in Computing (JERIC) - Special Issue on Gender-Balancing Computing Education
Proceedings of the 4th decennial conference on Critical computing: between sense and sensibility
From subject of change to agent of change: women and IT in Brazil
CWIT '05 Proceedings of the international symposium on Women and ICT: creating global transformation
Virtual vs. face-to-face teams: deadbeats, deserters, and other considerations
Proceedings of the 2006 ACM SIGMIS CPR conference on computer personnel research: Forty four years of computer personnel research: achievements, challenges & the future
An examination of gender effects on career success of information systems employees
Journal of Management Information Systems - Special section: Information technology and IT organizational impact
Leveling the CS1 playing field
Proceedings of the 38th SIGCSE technical symposium on Computer science education
Forming a women's computer science support group
Proceedings of the 38th SIGCSE technical symposium on Computer science education
CS 0.5: a better approach to introductory computer science for majors
Proceedings of the 39th SIGCSE technical symposium on Computer science education
Relationship between the level of intimacy and lurking in online social network services
Computers in Human Behavior
Broadening accessibility to computer science for K-12 education
Proceedings of the fifteenth annual conference on Innovation and technology in computer science education
Reaching out to aid in retention: empowering undergraduate women
Proceedings of the 42nd ACM technical symposium on Computer science education
Conceptualizing and Testing a Social Cognitive Model of the Digital Divide
Information Systems Research
Teaching artificial intelligence as a lab science: basic and informed search (abstract only)
Proceedings of the 45th ACM technical symposium on Computer science education
Hi-index | 48.28 |
There is mounting evidence that many women opting for careers in computing either drop out of the academic pipeline or choose not to get advanced degrees and enter industry instead. Consequently, there are disproportionately low numbers of women in academic computer science and the computer industry. The situation may be perpetuated for several generations since studies show that girls from grade school to high school are losing interest in computing.Statistics, descriptions offered by women in academic and industrial computing, and the research findings reported later in this article indicate that much is amiss. But the point of what follows is not to place blame—rather it is to foster serious reflection and possibly instigate action. It behooves the computer community to consider whether the experiences of women in training are unique to computer science. We must ask why the computer science laboratory or classroom is “chilly” for women and girls. If it is demonstrated that the problems are particular to the field, it is crucial to understand their origins. The field is young and flexible enough to modify itself. These women are, of course, open to the charge that they describe the problems of professional women everywhere. But even if the juggling acts of female computer scientists in both academia and industry are not particular to computing, American society cannot afford to ignore or dismiss their experiences; there is an indisputable brain drain from this leading-edge discipline.A look at statistics reveals a disquieting situation. According to Betty M. Vetter, executive director of the Commission on Professionals in Science and Technology in Washington, DC, while the number of bachelor's and master's degrees in computer science are dropping steadily for both men and women, degrees awarded to women are dropping faster, so they are becoming a smaller proportion of the total. . Bachelor's degrees peaked at 35.7% in 1986, masters also peaked that year at 29.9%, and both are expected to continue to decline. “We have expected the numbers to drop for both, due to demographics such as fewer college students,” says Vetter, “but degrees awarded women are declining long before reaching parity.” (See Table I.) Vetter also would have expected computer science to be “a great field for women,” as undergraduate mathematics has been; female math majors have earned 45% of bachelor's degrees during the 1980s. On the other hand, math Ph.D.'s awarded to women have gone from only 15.5% to 18.1% in this decade, which is more in line with computer science Ph.D.'s earned by women. In 1987, 14.4% of all computer science Ph.D.'s went to women; this number declined to 10.9% the following year. Although the number almost doubled between 1988 and 1989 with women receiving 17.5% of Ph.D.'s, Vetter points out that the number remains very small, at 107. Since these figures include foreign students who are principally male, women constitute a smaller percentage of that total than they do of Ph.D.'s awarded to Americans. But while American women received 21.4% of Ph.D.'s awarded to Americans, that is not encouraging either, says Vetter. Again, the number of American women awarded computer science Ph.D.'s was miniscule, at 72. And taking a longer view, the awarding of significantly fewer bachelor's and master's degrees to women in the late 1980s will be felt in seven to eight years, when they would be expected to receive their Ph.D.'s.How do these figures compare with those of other sciences and engineering? In her 1989 report to the National Science Foundation, “Women and Computer Science,” Nancy Leveson, associate professor of information and computer science at the University of California at Irvine, reports that in 1986, women earned only 12% of computer science doctorates compared to 30% of all doctorates awarded to women in the sciences. Leveson notes, however, that this includes the social sciences and psychology, which have percentages as high as 32 to 50. But the breakout for other fields is as follows: physical sciences (16.4%), math (16.6%), electrical engineering (4.9%), and other engineering ranges from 0.8% for aeronautical to 13.9% for industrial.Those women who do get computer science degrees are not pursuing careers in academic computer science. Leveson says women are either not being offered or are not accepting faculty positions, or are dropping out of the faculty ranks. Looking at data taken from the 1988-89 Taulbee Survey, which appeared in Communications in September, Leveson points out that of the 158 computer science and computer engineering departments in that survey, 6.5 percent of the faculty are female. One third of the departments have no female faculty at all. (See Tables III and IV.)Regarding women in computing in the labor force, Vetter comments that the statistics are very soft. The Bureau of Labor Statistics asks companies for information on their workforce, and the NSF asks individuals for their professional identification; therefore estimates vary. Table II shows that this year, women comprise about 35% of computer scientists in industry. And according to a 1988 NSF report on women and minorities, although women represent 49% of all professionals, they make up only 30% of employed computer scientists. “There is no reason why women should not make up half the labor force in computing,” Betty Vetter says, “It's not as if computing involves lifting 125 pound weights.”The sense of isolation and need for a community was so keen among women in computing, that in 1987 several specialists in operating systems created their own private forum and electronic mailing list called “Systers.” Founded and operated by Anita Borg, member of the research staff at DEC's Western Research Lab, Systers consists of over 350 women representing many fields within computing. They represent 43 companies and 55 universities primarily in the United States, but with a few in Canada, the United Kingdom, and France. Industry members are senior level and come from every major research lab. University members range from computer science undergraduates to department chairs. Says Borg, “Systers' purpose is to be a forum for discussion of both the problems and joys of women in our field and to provide a medium for networking and mentoring.” The network prevents these women, who are few and dispersed, from feeling that they alone experience certain problems. Says Borg, “You can spit out what you want with this group and get women's perspectives back. You get a sense of community.” Is it sexist to have an all-women's forum? “Absolutely not,” says Borg, “It's absolutely necessary. We didn't want to include men because there is a different way that women talk when they're talking with other women, whether it be in person or over the net. Knowing that we are all women is very important.” (Professional women in computer science who are interested in the Systers mailing list may send email to systers-request@decwrl.dec.com)The burden from women in computing seems to be very heavy indeed. Investigators in gender-related research, and women themselves, say females experience cumulative disadvantages from grade school through graduate school and beyond. Because statistical studies frequently come under fire and do not always explain the entire picture, it is important to listen to how women themselves tell their story. In the Sidebar entitled “Graduate School in the Early 80s,” women describe experiences of invisibility, patronizing behavior, doubted qualifications, and so on. Given these experiences, it is not surprising that many women find the academic climate inclement. But while more women may choose to contribute to research in industry, is the computer business really a haven for women, or just the only alternative? In the Sidebar entitled “The Workplace in the late '80s,” women in industry also tell their story and describe dilemmas in a dialogue on academia versus industry; this discussion erupted freely last Spring on Systers. In addition, findings of scholars conducting gender-related research are presented in a report of a workshop on women and computing. Finally, Communications presents “Becoming a Computer Scientist: A Report by the ACM Committee on the Status of Women in Computer Science.” A draft was presented at the workshop and the report appears in its entirety in this issue.