The Nurnberg funnel: designing minimalist instruction for practical computer skill
The Nurnberg funnel: designing minimalist instruction for practical computer skill
An interface strategy for promoting reflective cognition in children
Conference Companion on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Data mountain: using spatial memory for document management
Proceedings of the 11th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology
Planning and the user interface: the effects of lockout time and error recovery cost
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
Training wheels in a user interface
Communications of the ACM
Evaluating the effectiveness of spatial memory in 2D and 3D physical and virtual environments
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Learning where to look: location learning in graphical user interfaces
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Shorthand writing on stylus keyboard
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
The effects of positional constancy on searching menus for information
CHI '83 Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
SHARK2: a large vocabulary shorthand writing system for pen-based computers
Proceedings of the 17th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology
Faster document navigation with space-filling thumbnails
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
A predictive model of menu performance
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
On the ease and efficiency of human-computer interfaces
Proceedings of the 2008 symposium on Eye tracking research & applications
A cognitive simulation model for novice text entry on cell phone keypads
Proceedings of the 14th European conference on Cognitive ergonomics: invent! explore!
AVI '08 Proceedings of the working conference on Advanced visual interfaces
Hard-to-use interfaces considered beneficial (some of the time)
CHI '10 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Dips and ceilings: understanding and supporting transitions to expertise in user interfaces
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Comparing cognitive effort in spatial learning of text entry keyboards and ShapeWriters
Proceedings of the International Working Conference on Advanced Visual Interfaces
Memorability of pre-designed and user-defined gesture sets
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Learning and performance with gesture guides
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Testing the robustness and performance of spatially consistent interfaces
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Exploiting spatial memory to design efficient command interfaces
CHI '13 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Touching annotations: A visual metaphor for navigation of annotation in digital documents
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
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Interface designers normally strive for a design that minimises the user's effort. However, when the design's objective is to train users to interact with interfaces that are highly dependent on spatial properties (e.g. keypad layout or gesture shapes) we contend that designers should consider explicitly increasing the mental effort of interaction. To test the hypothesis that effort aids spatial memory, we designed a "frost-brushing" interface that forces the user to mentally retrieve spatial information, or to physically brush away the frost to obtain visual guidance. We report results from two experiments using virtual keypad interfaces -- the first concerns spatial location learning of buttons on the keypad, and the second concerns both location and trajectory learning of gesture shape. The results support our hypothesis, showing that the frost-brushing design improved spatial learning. The participants' subjective responses emphasised the connections between effort, engagement, boredom, frustration, and enjoyment, suggesting that effort requires careful parameterisation to maximise its effectiveness.