The emergence of Zipf's law: Spontaneous encoding optimization by users of a command language
IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics
Split menus: effectively using selection frequency to organize menus
ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction (TOCHI)
Supporting command reuse: empirical foundations and principles
International Journal of Man-Machine Studies
The GOMS family of user interface analysis techniques: comparison and contrast
ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction (TOCHI)
Cognitive modeling reveals menu search in both random and systematic
Proceedings of the ACM SIGCHI Conference on Human factors in computing systems
Beyond Fitts' law: models for trajectory-based HCI tasks
Proceedings of the ACM SIGCHI Conference on Human factors in computing systems
Item recognition in menu selection: the effect of practice
CHI '93 INTERACT '93 and CHI '93 Conference Companion on Human Factors in Computing Systems
A comparison of rule-based and positionally constant arrangements of computer menu items
CHI '87 Proceedings of the SIGCHI/GI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems and Graphics Interface
Eye tracking the visual search of click-down menus
Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Selection from alphabetic and numeric menu trees using a touch screen: breadth, depth, and width
CHI '85 Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
UIST '00 Proceedings of the 13th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology
Interface design and multivariate analysis of UNIX command use
ACM Transactions on Information Systems (TOIS)
Improving focus targeting in interactive fisheye views
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
The Psychology of Human-Computer Interaction
The Psychology of Human-Computer Interaction
CHI '00 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Proceedings of the 16th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology
A comparison of static, adaptive, and adaptable menus
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
A Mathematical Theory of Communication
A Mathematical Theory of Communication
ACT-R: a theory of higher level cognition and its relation to visual attention
Human-Computer Interaction
Information theoretic models of HCI: a comparison of the Hick-Hyman law and Fitts' law
Human-Computer Interaction
Hard lessons: effort-inducing interfaces benefit spatial learning
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
A study on the scalability of non-preferred hand mode manipulation
Proceedings of the 9th international conference on Multimodal interfaces
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Genetic algorithm can optimize hierarchical menus
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
There's always one!: modelling outlying user performance
CHI '08 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems
A model of non-preferred hand mode switching
GI '08 Proceedings of graphics interface 2008
Optimizing hierarchical menus by genetic algorithm and simulated annealing
Proceedings of the 10th annual conference on Genetic and evolutionary computation
Proceedings of the 10th international conference on Human computer interaction with mobile devices and services
Hover or tap?: supporting pen-based menu navigation for older adults
Proceedings of the 10th international ACM SIGACCESS conference on Computers and accessibility
A probabilistic mental model for estimating disruption
Proceedings of the 14th international conference on Intelligent user interfaces
Ephemeral adaptation: the use of gradual onset to improve menu selection performance
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Revisiting read wear: analysis, design, and evaluation of a footprints scrollbar
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
AdWiL: adaptive windows layout manager
CHI '09 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Exploring Methods to Improve Pen-Based Menu Selection for Younger and Older Adults
ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing (TACCESS)
Modeling learning effects in mobile texting
Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Mobile and Ubiquitous Multimedia
Improving Window Switching Interfaces
INTERACT '09 Proceedings of the 12th IFIP TC 13 International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction: Part II
Acquisition of Animated and Pop-Up Targets
INTERACT '09 Proceedings of the 12th IFIP TC 13 International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction: Part II
Virtual shelves: interactions with orientation aware devices
Proceedings of the 22nd annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology
Un espace de conception fondé sur une analyse morphologique des techniques de menus
Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Association Francophone d'Interaction Homme-Machine
Performance evaluation of a genetic algorithm for optimizing hierarchical menus
CEC'09 Proceedings of the Eleventh conference on Congress on Evolutionary Computation
Beyond performance: Feature awareness in personalized interfaces
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
Why it's quick to be square: modelling new and existing hierarchical menu designs
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Predicting Chinese text entry speeds on mobile phones
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Optimization of menu layouts by means of genetic algorithms
EvoCOP'08 Proceedings of the 8th European conference on Evolutionary computation in combinatorial optimization
A model of novice and expert navigation performance in constrained-input interfaces
ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction (TOCHI)
An automated routine for menu structure optimization
Proceedings of the 2nd ACM SIGCHI symposium on Engineering interactive computing systems
Characterizing large-scale use of a direct manipulation application in the wild
Proceedings of Graphics Interface 2010
Supporting menu design with radial layouts
Proceedings of the International Conference on Advanced Visual Interfaces
Designing adaptive feedback for improving data entry accuracy
UIST '10 Proceedings of the 23nd annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology
Anticipation as a strategy: a design paradigm for robotics
KSEM'10 Proceedings of the 4th international conference on Knowledge science, engineering and management
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
Air pointing: Design and evaluation of spatial target acquisition with and without visual feedback
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
Categorization costs for hierarchical keyboard commands
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Navigation time variability: measuring menu navigation errors
INTERACT'11 Proceedings of the 13th IFIP TC 13 international conference on Human-computer interaction - Volume Part I
INTERACT'11 Proceedings of the 13th IFIP TC 13 international conference on Human-computer interaction - Volume Part II
INTERACT'11 Proceedings of the 13th IFIP TC 13 international conference on Human-computer interaction - Volume Part IV
Improving command selection with CommandMaps
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
AccessRank: predicting what users will do next
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Triggering triggers and burying barriers to customizing software
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Tap, swipe, or move: attentional demands for distracted smartphone input
Proceedings of the International Working Conference on Advanced Visual Interfaces
Visual scanning as a reference framework for interactive representation design
Information Visualization - Special issue on Evaluation for Information Visualization
Dynamic tactile guidance for visual search tasks
Proceedings of the 25th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology
Dyslexic students in higher education and virtual learning environments: an exploratory study
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning
Action graphs and user performance analysis
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
Design and Evaluation of Soft Keyboards for Brahmic Scripts
ACM Transactions on Asian Language Information Processing (TALIP)
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Exploring adverse effects of adaptive voice menu
CHI '13 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Design and evaluation of adaptive interfaces for IVR systems
CHI '13 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Exploiting spatial memory to design efficient command interfaces
CHI '13 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems
A study on icon arrangement by smartphone users
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
TrailMap: facilitating information seeking in a multi-scale digital map via implicit bookmarking
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
MenuOptimizer: interactive optimization of menu systems
Proceedings of the 26th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology
MenuInspector: Outil pour l'analyse des menus et cas d'étude
Proceedings of the 25ième conférence francophone on l'Interaction Homme-Machine
An evaluation of advanced user interface customization
Proceedings of the 25th Australian Computer-Human Interaction Conference: Augmentation, Application, Innovation, Collaboration
Proceedings of the 19th international conference on Intelligent User Interfaces
Genetic algorithms supporting generative design of user interfaces: Examples
Information Sciences: an International Journal
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Menus are a primary control in current interfaces, but there has been relatively little theoretical work to model their performance. We propose a model of menu performance that goes beyond previous work by incorporating components for Fitts' Law pointing time, visual search time when novice, Hick-Hyman Law decision time when expert, and for the transition from novice to expert behaviour. The model is able to predict performance for many different menu designs, including adaptive split menus, items with different frequencies and sizes, and multi-level menus. We tested the model by comparing predictions for four menu designs (traditional menus, recency and frequency based split menus, and an adaptive 'morphing' design) with empirical measures. The empirical data matched the predictions extremely well, suggesting that the model can be used to explore a wide range of menu possibilities before implementation.