Artificial Intelligence
What do users ask? Some thoughts on diagnostic advice
Proc. of the fifth technical conference of the British Computer Society Specialist Group on Expert Systems on Expert systems 85
Interface design issues for advice-giving expert systems
Communications of the ACM
Expert systems: the next challenge for managers
Sloan Management Review
Interfacing thought: cognitive aspects of human-computer interaction
Knowledge-based tutoring: the GUIDON program
Knowledge-based tutoring: the GUIDON program
Modern structured analysis
On the nature of explanation: a PDP approach
CNLS '89 Proceedings of the ninth annual international conference of the Center for Nonlinear Studies on Self-organizing, Collective, and Cooperative Phenomena in Natural and Artificial Computing Networks on Emergent computation
Human cognition and the expert system interface: mental models and inference explanations
Human cognition and the expert system interface: mental models and inference explanations
Survey of expert critiquing systems: practical and theoretical frontiers
Communications of the ACM
Selection criteria for expert system shells: a socio-technical framework
Communications of the ACM
An explanatory and “argumentative” interface for a model-based diagnostic system
UIST '92 Proceedings of the 5th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology
Communicative acts for explanation generation
International Journal of Man-Machine Studies
Explanation facilities and interactive systems
IUI '93 Proceedings of the 1st international conference on Intelligent user interfaces
The state of knowledge-based systems
Communications of the ACM
Agents that reduce work and information overload
Communications of the ACM
Communications of the ACM
An experimental investigation of the use of explanations provided by knowledge-based systems
An experimental investigation of the use of explanations provided by knowledge-based systems
Decision support and expert systems (4th ed.): management support systems
Decision support and expert systems (4th ed.): management support systems
Early expert systems: where are they now?
MIS Quarterly
Cognitive support: designing aiding to supplement human knowledge
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
An empirical investigation of the effect of variations in expert system explanation presentation on users' acquisition of expertise and perceptions of the system
Learning and explanation type in a knowledge-based arms control assistant: an empirical evaluation
Learning and explanation type in a knowledge-based arms control assistant: an empirical evaluation
Evaluating user interfaces to information retrieval systems: a case study on user support
SIGIR '96 Proceedings of the 19th annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval
Enhancing explanations in knowledge-based systems with hypertext
Journal of Organizational Computing and Electronic Commerce - Special issue on hypermedia in information systems and organizations
An intelligent assistant for patient health care
AGENTS '97 Proceedings of the first international conference on Autonomous agents
The Turing effect: the nature of trust in expert systems advice
Expertise in context
Intelligent Systems for Business: Expert Systems with Neural Networks
Intelligent Systems for Business: Expert Systems with Neural Networks
The Architecture of Cognition
Computational Models of Discourse
Computational Models of Discourse
Explaining Control Strategies in Problem Solving
IEEE Expert: Intelligent Systems and Their Applications
An Explanation Facility for Today's Expert Systems
IEEE Expert: Intelligent Systems and Their Applications
An empirical test of expert system explanation facility effects on incidental learning and decision-making
User requirements for explanation in expert systems
User requirements for explanation in expert systems
An experimental study of the use and effects of hypertext-based explanations in knowledge-based systems
Human Problem Solving
Surprisingness and expectation failure: what's the difference?
IJCAI'87 Proceedings of the 10th international joint conference on Artificial intelligence - Volume 1
Combining discourse strategies to generate descriptions to users along a naive/expert spectrum
IJCAI'87 Proceedings of the 10th international joint conference on Artificial intelligence - Volume 2
XPLAIN: a system for creating and explaining expert consulting programs
Artificial Intelligence
Enhanced maintenance and explanation of expert systems through explicit models of their development
PKWBS-W'84 Proceedings of the 1984 IEEE conference on Principles of knowledge-based systems
Information Technology and Management
A review of research: an investigation of the impact of data quality on decision performance
ISICT '04 Proceedings of the 2004 international symposium on Information and communication technologies
Explanation in Case-Based Reasoning---Perspectives and Goals
Artificial Intelligence Review
Design and evaluation of an intelligent decision support system for nuclear emergencies
Decision Support Systems
Human versus automated facilitation in the GSS context
ACM SIGMIS Database
The design features of forecasting support systems and their effectiveness
Decision Support Systems
Regret avoidance as a measure of DSS success: An exploratory study
Decision Support Systems
Impact of GDSS: opening the black box
Decision Support Systems
The effects of structural characteristics of explanations on use of a DSS
Decision Support Systems
Journal of Management Information Systems
Proceedings of the 2nd international conference on Digital interactive media in entertainment and arts
Knowledge management in mobile environment
International Journal of Networking and Virtual Organisations
Agent-based consumer learning in e-commerce
International Journal of Networking and Virtual Organisations
Computers in Human Behavior
The effects of transparency on trust in and acceptance of a content-based art recommender
User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction
Designs for explaining intelligent agents
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
Journal of Management Information Systems
Recommendation Agents for Electronic Commerce: Effects of Explanation Facilities on Trusting Beliefs
Journal of Management Information Systems
Why and why not explanations improve the intelligibility of context-aware intelligent systems
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
How Knowledge Validation Processes Affect Knowledge Contribution
Journal of Management Information Systems
Impact of Knowledge Support on the Performance of Software Process Tailoring
Journal of Management Information Systems
Explanatory Capabilities in the CREEK Knowledge-Intensive Case-Based Reasoner
Proceedings of the 2008 conference on Tenth Scandinavian Conference on Artificial Intelligence: SCAI 2008
Proceedings of the 2008 conference on ECAI 2008: 18th European Conference on Artificial Intelligence
Assessing demand for intelligibility in context-aware applications
Proceedings of the 11th international conference on Ubiquitous computing
The crucial role of user's perceived trust in the orchestration and adoption of IT-ecosystems
Proceedings of the International Conference on Management of Emergent Digital EcoSystems
Design and evaluation of an intelligent decision support system for nuclear emergencies
Decision Support Systems
Determinants of consumers' perceived trust in IT-ecosystems
Journal of Theoretical and Applied Electronic Commerce Research
Toolkit to support intelligibility in context-aware applications
Proceedings of the 12th ACM international conference on Ubiquitous computing
Taking advice from intelligent systems: the double-edged sword of explanations
Proceedings of the 16th international conference on Intelligent user interfaces
Online government advisory service innovation through Intelligent Support Systems
Information and Management
Information Processing and Management: an International Journal
Explanation and trust: what to tell the user in security and AI?
Ethics and Information Technology
The nature of theory in information systems
MIS Quarterly
Tapping as a measure of cognitive load and website usability
Proceedings of the 29th ACM international conference on Design of communication
d.tour: style-based exploration of design example galleries
Proceedings of the 24th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology
Outcomes of effective explanations: Empowering citizens through online advice
Decision Support Systems
Technology Dominance in Complex Decision Making: The Case of Aided Credibility Assessment
Journal of Management Information Systems
Mapping goals and kinds of explanations to the knowledge containers of case-based reasoning systems
ICCBR'05 Proceedings of the 6th international conference on Case-Based Reasoning Research and Development
Are explanations always important?: a study of deployed, low-cost intelligent interactive systems
Proceedings of the 2012 ACM international conference on Intelligent User Interfaces
Intelligent pairing assistant for air operation centers
Proceedings of the 2012 ACM international conference on Intelligent User Interfaces
A methodology for developing self-explaining agents for virtual training
LADS'09 Proceedings of the Second international conference on Languages, Methodologies, and Development Tools for Multi-Agent Systems
Proceedings of the 30th ACM international conference on Design of communication
Information Resources Management Journal
Social network analysis for customer churn prediction
Applied Soft Computing
Evaluating and understanding text-based stock price prediction models
Information Processing and Management: an International Journal
Explaining data-driven document classifications
MIS Quarterly
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Information systems with an "intelligent" or "knowledge" component are now prevalent and include knowledge-based systems, decision support systems, intelligent agents and knowledge management systems. These systems are in principle capable of explaining their reasoning or justifying their behavior. There appears to be a lack of understanding, however, of the benefits that can flow from explanation use, and how an explanation function should be constructed. Work with newer types of intelligent systems and help functions for everyday systems, such as word-processors, appears in many cases to neglect lessons learned in the past. This paper attempts to rectify this situation by drawing together the considerable body of work on the nature and use of explanations. Empirical studies, mainly with knowledge-based systems, are reviewed and linked to a sound theoretical base. The theoretical base combines a cognitive effort perspective, cognitive learning theory, and Toulmin's model of argumentation. Conclusions drawn from the review have both practical and theoretical significance. Explanations are important to users in a number of circumstances - when the user perceives an anomaly, when they want to learn, or when they need a specific piece of knowledge to participate properly in problem solving. Explanations, when suitably designed, have been shown to improve performance and learning and result in more positive user perceptions of a system. The design is important, however, because it appears that explanations will not be used if the user has to exert "too much" effort to get them. Explanations should be provided automatically if this can be done relatively unobtrusively, or by hypertext links, and should be context-specific rather than generic. Explanations that conform to Toulmin's model of argumentation, in that they provide adequate justification for the knowledge offered, should be more persuasive and lead to greater trust, agreement, satisfaction, and acceptance - of the explanation and possibly also of the system as a whole.