Using a human face in an interface
CHI '94 Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Situated facial displays: towards social interaction
CHI '95 Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Self disclosure on computer forms: meta-analysis and implications
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
The role of expectations in human-computer interaction
GROUP '99 Proceedings of the international ACM SIGGROUP conference on Supporting group work
The effects of animated characters on anxiety, task performance, and evaluations of user interfaces
Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
The impact of animated interface agents: a review of empirical research
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
Nudge nudge wink wink: elements of face-to-face conversation for embodied conversational agents
Embodied conversational agents
Explaining effects of eye gaze on mediated group conversations:: amount or synchronization?
CSCW '02 Proceedings of the 2002 ACM conference on Computer supported cooperative work
How Convincing is Mr. Data's Smile: Affective Expressions of Machines
User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction
The Persona Effect: How Substantial Is It?
HCI '98 Proceedings of HCI on People and Computers XIII
An empirical study on the trustworthiness of life-like interface agents
Proceedings of the HCI International '99 (the 8th International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction) on Human-Computer Interaction: Communication, Cooperation, and Application Design-Volume 2 - Volume 2
Designing Interfaces to Maximize the Quality of Collaborative Work
HICSS '99 Proceedings of the Thirty-Second Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences-Volume 1 - Volume 1
The role of spoken feedback in experiencing multimodal interfaces as human-like
Proceedings of the 5th international conference on Multimodal interfaces
A cognitive meta-analysis of design approaches to interruptions in intelligent environments
CHI '04 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies - Special issue: Subtle expressivity for characters and robots
Understanding the effect of life-like interface agents through users' eye movements
ICMI '05 Proceedings of the 7th international conference on Multimodal interfaces
Physical embodiments for mobile communication agents
Proceedings of the 18th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology
Can a virtual cat persuade you?: the role of gender and realism in speaker persuasiveness
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments
AAMAS '06 Proceedings of the fifth international joint conference on Autonomous agents and multiagent systems
AI Magazine - Special issue on achieving human-level AI through integrated systems and research
Evaluating users' experience of a character-enhanced information space
AI Communications
Realism is not all! User engagement with task-related interface characters
Interacting with Computers
Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments - Special issue: 2004 workshop on VR design and evaluation
Equilibrium Theory Revisited: Mutual Gaze and Personal Space in Virtual Environments
Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments
How Colorful Was Your Day? Why Questionnaires Cannot Assess Presence in Virtual Environments
Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments
Journal of Management Information Systems
Human-Computer Interaction
Evaluating humanoid synthetic agents in e-retail applications
IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Part A: Systems and Humans
How people anthropomorphize robots
Proceedings of the 3rd ACM/IEEE international conference on Human robot interaction
"Seeing like a rover": embodied experience on the mars exploration rover mission
CHI '08 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Editorial: Special issue on the abuse and misuse of social agents
Interacting with Computers
Effects of avatar's blinking animation on person impressions
GI '08 Proceedings of graphics interface 2008
Body/persona/action!: emerging non-anthropomorphic communication and interaction in virtual worlds
ACE '08 Proceedings of the 2008 International Conference on Advances in Computer Entertainment Technology
Autonomous vs. tele-operated: how people perceive human-robot collaboration with hrp-2
Proceedings of the 4th ACM/IEEE international conference on Human robot interaction
Taking the time to care: empowering low health literacy hospital patients with virtual nurse agents
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Computers in Entertainment (CIE) - SPECIAL ISSUE: Media Arts and Games (Part II)
Presenting identity in a virtual world through avatar appearances
Proceedings of Graphics Interface 2009
Comparison of Different Talking Heads in Non-Interactive Settings
Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction. Part III: Ubiquitous and Intelligent Interaction
Evaluating the effects of behavioral realism in embodied agents
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
Affective interaction: How emotional agents affect users
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
Persuasive robotics: the influence of robot gender on human behavior
IROS'09 Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE/RSJ international conference on Intelligent robots and systems
Quality of talking heads in different interaction and media contexts
Speech Communication
Computers in Human Behavior
Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments
Designing an expressive avatar of a real person
IVA'10 Proceedings of the 10th international conference on Intelligent virtual agents
Do men heal more when in drag?: conflicting identity cues between user and avatar
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Perceptual analysis of talking avatar head movements: a quantitative perspective
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Ripple effects of an embedded social agent: a field study of a social robot in the workplace
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
User-centered design in video games: investigating gestural interfaces appropriation
DPPI '11 Proceedings of the 2011 Conference on Designing Pleasurable Products and Interfaces
The uncanny valley does not interfere with level 1 visual perspective taking
Computers in Human Behavior
Computers in Human Behavior
Avatar and Dialog Turn-Yielding Phenomena
International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction
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The use of embodied agents, defined as visual human-like representations accompanying a computer interface, is becoming prevalent in applications ranging from educational software to advertisements. In the current work, we assimilate previous empirical studies which compare interfaces with visually embodied agents to interfaces without agents, both using an informal, descriptive technique based on experimental results (46 studies) as well as a formal statistical meta-analysis (25 studies). Results revealed significantly larger effect sizes when analyzing subjective responses (i.e., questionnaire ratings, interviews) than when analyzing behavioral responses such as task performance and memory. Furthermore, the effects of adding an agent to an interface are larger than the effects of animating an agent to behave more realistically. However, the overall effect sizes were quite small (e.g., across studies, adding a face to an interface only explains approximately 2.5% of the variance in results). We discuss the implications for both designers building interfaces as well as social scientists designing experiments to evaluate those interfaces.